How did geography shape early Islamic civilizations?

Islam spread both via conquests and via the peaceful adoption of the doctrine. Because our theory focuses on the economic conditions conducive to the voluntary adoption of Islam, we concentrated on regions outside the Muslim empires. Doing so allowed us to single out the role of geography and trade and mitigate concerns related to the process of conversion within Muslim empires arising from coercion, Arab migration, and differential taxation.

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Islam spread both via conquests and via the peaceful adoption of the doctrine. ... We propose that these principles emerged and persisted in Islam because of a geography characterized by highly unequal agricultural endowments, which shaped the economic aspects of the Islamic religious doctrine.

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