If an officer uses information from an undercover informant who is engaged in criminal activity to establish probable cause, the fourth amendment requires in all cases that the officer:

this requires in all cases that the officer provide some information to support the informant or the informant's information

Explanation:

According to my research on the requirements of probable cause and warrants, I can say that based on the information provided within the question  this requires in all cases that the officer provide some information to support the informant or the informant's information. If the officer cannot provide this information then the case is thrown out by the judge because the arrest no longer falls under probable cause.

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every society, in order to meet the needs of it's people, has to answer three basic questions:

- what should we produce?

- how should we produce it?

- for whom should we produce it?

this questions must be answered in order to, option b, aid in production decisions.

every country can't produce everything, no matter how rich their land is. it may be a matter of technology, resources or geographical conditions. so, these three questions must be resolved in order to get the most of the production of each land.

hope this !

an informal structure in a bureaucracy would be something like so-called "office politics". where there's a formal structure set up for the organization, but then an informal subculture as well that has a way of organizing the bureaucracy further. this can be positive because it sets up an added degree of organization, albeit informal, within the bureaucracy.