The second law of thermodynamics states that: a. spontaneous processes are characterized by the overall conversion of order to disorder. b. spontaneous processes are characterized by the conversion of work to force. c. nonspontaneous processes are characterized by the conversion of order to disorder. d. spontaneous proces

Spontaneous processes are characterized by the overall conversion of order to disorder.

Explanation:

The second law of thermodynamics states that: A spontaneous process occurs only if there is an increase in entropy of a system and its surroundings.

Entropy, S, is a measure of the randomness or disorder of a system. It is measured in J/Kmol.

The change in entropy, ∆S = ∆H/T

Where ∆H = change in enthalpy, T = Temperature in Kelvin.

For,

I.An endothermic reaction, ∆S = positive (that is, ∆S is greater than zero), there is an increase in entropy, therefore, the reaction is spontaneous.

II.An exothermic reaction, ∆S = negative (that is, ∆S is less than zero) there is a decrease in entropy, so, the reaction is non-spontaneous.

III.A system at equilibrium, ∆S = 0.

Then,

The standard change in entropy of a reaction, ∆So reaction , is the difference in the standard entropies between products and reactants:

∆So reaction = n ∆Soproducts - m ∆Soreactants

Where, = sigma = sum of,

∆ = delta = change in,

n and m = stoichiometric coefficients of the products and reactants respectively.

Furthermore, the entropy of the system and surroundings is referred to as the entropy of the universe.

∆Suniverse = ∆Ssurroundings + ∆Ssystem.

Processes leading to an increase in entropy include melting, heating, vaporization, dissolving.

ice to water 1 water to vapour 2 latent heat