Suppose 5% of individuals exposed to a chemical get a tumor, and 2% of those not exposed get the same kind of tumor. Find: (a) the relative risk, (b) the attributable risk, and (c) the odds ratio. (d) What are your conclusions based on the values determined above?

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the treatment of other conditions (e.g., cystic breast disease) and for other medical reasons. Mastectomy is most effective when the cancerous tumour is discovered at an early stage and the malignant cells are localized. In order to best ensure the removal of all cancerous tissue, however, a margin of tissue surrounding a tumour and, sometimes, other nearby structures are also removed. Thus, there are several types of mastectomy, the selection of procedure depending on the location and extent of the disease (determined by X ray, thermography, and other diagnostic techniques) and the nature of the cancerous cells (determined by biopsy).

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Anti-vaccination beliefs can cause real, substantive harm, as shown by the recent outbreak of measles in the US.

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