The collapse of the imperial system was followed by a vast Both had experienced the consequences of a rapidly shifting balance The collapse of the Ottoman Empire after WWI led to a creation of revolutionary upheaval that by 1949 led to a Communist regime within the territorial space of the old empire. China's 20th C. revolutionaries rejected traditional Confucian culture far more thoroughly than the secularizing leaders of modern Turkey rejected Islam. China had a more elitist and secular outlook of Confucianism. of global power. As "semi-colonies," neither was able to create industrial economies or strong states. Both gave rise to new nationalist conceptions of society. Both empires had collapsed. a new but smaller nationstate in the Turkish heartland of the old empire, having lost its vast Arab and European provinces. Almost everywhere in the Islamic world, traditional religion retained its hold on the private loyalties of most people and later in the 20th C. became a basis for social renewal in many places. It had many independent centers and was never closely associated with a single state. It was embedded in a deeply religious tradition.