The cognitive processes in involve the organism developing an expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished with or without reinforcement.

Operant conditioning

Explanation:

Operant conditioning is a learning process in which learning takes place as a result of the consequences attached to behaviors or actions that are exhibited. A behavior or action is likely to be repeated more often, if such behavior or action receives reinforcement in the form of reward. On the other hand, a behavior or action is less likely to occur or repeated if it receives a negative consequences in the form of punishment.

For example, if a lab rat is rewarded with pellet for pressing a blue button, it is more likely to repeat such behavior often times, as the rate of operant responding would increase. However, if it receives a negative consequence, such as a shock, when it presses the red button, it is less likely to repeat such action, as the rate of operant responding would decrease.

b and d are your answers i just answered this question