As the electron transport carriers shuttle electrons, they actively pump into the outer membrane compartment, setting up a concentration gradient called the proton motive force.

Hydrogen ions or protons

Explanation:

Electron transport carriers is a series of complexes that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox reactions, and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons (H+ ions) across a membrane. This creates an electrochemical proton gradient that drives the synthesis of ATP, a molecule that stores energy chemically in the form of highly strained bonds. The molecules of the chain include peptides, enzymes (which are proteins or protein complexes), and others. The final acceptor of electrons in the electron transport chain during aerobic respiration is molecular oxygen although a variety of acceptors other than oxygen such as sulfate exist in anaerobic respiration.

8 m/s because for him to get the same amount of energy as ray is putting out, bobby, who weighs half as much as ray, needs to run twice as fast.

a) the particles of the chair are strongly held together.