Determine the tax liability for tax year 2019 in each of the following instances. In each case, assume the taxpayer can take only the standard deduction.

Use the appropriate Tax Tables and Tax Rate Schedules.

A single taxpayer, not head of household, with AGI of $23,493 and one dependent.
A single taxpayer, not head of household, with AGI of $169,783 and no dependents. (Round your intermediate computations to 2 decimal places and final answer to the nearest dollar amount.)
A married couple filing jointly with AGI of $39,945 and two dependents.
A married couple filing jointly with AGI of $162,288 and three dependents. (Round your intermediate computations to 2 decimal places and final answer to the nearest dollar amount.)
A married couple filing jointly with AGI of $301,947 and one dependent. (Round your intermediate computations to 2 decimal places and final answer to the nearest dollar amount.)
A taxpayer filing married filing separately with AGI of $68,996 and one dependent.
A qualifying widow, age 66, with AGI of $49,240 and one dependent.
A head of household with AGI of $14,392 and two dependents.
A head of household with AGI of $59,226 and one dependent.

Torino company has 1,300 shares of $50 par value, 6.0% cumulative and nonparticipating preferred stock and 13,000 shares of $10 par value common stock outstanding. the company paid total cash dividends of $3,500 in its first year of operation. the cash dividend that must be paid to preferred stockholders in the second year before any dividend is paid to common stockholders is:

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Reliability and validity reliability and validity are two important considerations that must be made with any type of data collection. reliability refers to the ability to consistently produce a given result. in the context of psychological research, this would mean that any instruments or tools used to collect data do so in consistent, reproducible ways. unfortunately, being consistent in measurement does not necessarily mean that you have measured something correctly. to illustrate this concept, consider a kitchen scale that would be used to measure the weight of cereal that you eat in the morning. if the scale is not properly calibrated, it may consistently under- or overestimate the amount of cereal that’s being measured. while the scale is highly reliable in producing consistent results (e.g., the same amount of cereal poured onto the scale produces the same reading each time), those results are incorrect. this is where validity comes into play. validity refers to the extent to which a given instrument or tool accurately measures what it’s supposed to measure. while any valid measure is by necessity reliable, the reverse is not necessarily true. researchers strive to use instruments that are both highly reliable and valid.