In addition to extremes in temperature and pH, other chemical and physical agents denature proteins. These agents include ionizing radiation, alcohol, enzymes, and heavy-metal ions. For example, the first antimicrobial drug, arsphenamine, contained the heavy metal arsenic and was used to inhibit the enzymes of the bacterium Treponema pallidum, the causative agent of syphilis. Given that both human and bacterial enzymes are denatured by heavy metals, how was arsphenamine used to treat syphilis without poisoning the patient? Why is syphilis no longer treated with arsenic-containing compounds?

The hawk receives 0.1% energy from the caterpillar although the caterpillar gets eaten by another bird smaller than the hawk first

Proteins are the workhorses of the cell, controlling virtually every reaction within as well as providing structure and serving as signals to other cells. proteins are long chains of  amino acids  , and the exact sequence of the amino acids determines the final structure and function of the protein. instructions for that sequence are encoded in  genes  . to make a particular protein, a messenger ribonucleic acid (mrna) copy is made from the gene (in the process called  transcription  ), and the mrna is transported to the  ribosome  . protein synthesis, also called  translation  , begins when the two ribosomal subunits link onto the mrna. this step, called initiation, is followed by elongation, in which successive amino acids are added to the growing chain, brought in by transfer rnas (trnas). in this step, the ribosome reads the  nucleotides  of mrna three by three, in units called  codons  , and matches each to three nucleotides on the trna, called the anticodon. finally, during termination, the ribosome unbinds from the mrna, and the  amino acid  chain goes on to be processed and folded to make the final, functional protein