Biology, 26.08.2019 10:00 krystalhurst97

What happens in a buffer when the level of h+ ions in soluton increases

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The pH of solutions is an important chemical property. Oxygen is much more electronegative than hydrogen. Both shared electrons in an oxygen-to-hydrogen bond tend to spend more time with the oxygen atom than with hydrogen. Although the vast majority of water molecules remain intact in liquid water, at any given moment a few individual hydrogen atoms succumb to the pressure of the electronegative oxygen and lose their hold on both shared electrons. When this happens, the covalent bond is broken and a hydrogen ion (positive charge because it lost its electron to oxygen, shorthand = H+) is released. The remaining part of the original water molecule is called a hydroxide ion (negative charge because it kept an extra electron, shorthand = OH-). Although present at very low levels in solution, H+ and OH- ions can have enormous effects on the properties of a solution, especially when they are not in balance. In pure water, every hydroxide ion that forms creates a hydrogen ion, so there are equal numbers of anions and cations. If a solute is added to water, however, this balance can change.

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Plants, sunlight, growth and artificial sunlight

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the african cheetah.

this species has a relatively low level of genetic

variation because the population was reduced to a small size approxi-

mately 10,000 to 12,000 years ago.

chapter outline

24.1

genes in populations and the hardy-

weinberg equation

24.2

factors that change allele and genotype

frequencies in populations

24.3 sources of new genetic variation

population genetics

until now, we have primarily focused our attention on genes

within individuals and their related family members. in this

chapter and chapters 25 and 26 , we turn to the study of genes in

a population or species. the field of

population genetics

is con-

cerned with changes in genetic variation within a group of indi-

viduals over time. population geneticists want to know the extent

of genetic variation within populations, why it exists, and how it

changes over the course of many generations. the field of popu-

lation genetics emerged as a branch of genetics in the 1920s and

1930s. its mathematical foundations were developed by theoreti-

cians who extended the principles of gregor mendel and charles

darwin by deriving formulas to explain the occurrence of geno-

types within populations. these foundations can be largely attrib-

uted to three scientists: sir ronald fisher, sewall wright, and j. b. s.

haldane. as we will see, support for their mathematical theories

was provided by several researchers who analyzed the genetic com-

position of natural and experimental populations. more recently,

population geneticists have used techniques to probe genetic

variation at the molecular level. in addition, staggering advances

in computer technology have aided population geneticists in the

analysis of their genetic theories and data. in this chapter, we will

explore the genetic variation that occurs in populations and con-

sider the reasons why the genetic composition of populations may

change over the course of several generations

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