A nursing student is taking a pathophysiology examination. What factors would the student correctly identify as contributing to the underlying pathophysiology of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)?

→presence of lot of mucus which blocked the respiratory pathways.

→narrowing of air ways due to inflammation of the epithelial limning.

→inability of the alveolar walls to expel air   due to loss of elasticity

Explanation:

When an individual experiences difficulty with breathing,coughed with thick   sputum produced,and  accompanied with wheezing sounds, there is likelihood of the blockage or obstruction of the respiratory passages to the lungs, which traps air in the lungs and prevents its removal.This condition is called COPD.  It is the combination of some pulmonary disease mostly-emphysema and chronic bronchitis, and worsen with time.

Emphysema  is the loss of elasticity of the alveolar due to damage to the Elastin tissues(usually by nicotine, tar,  in cigarette) which  allows the sacs to expand and contracts.Sacs are filled air , but the trapped air can not escape , therefore the lung expands,creating pain for the subject.

The chronic bronchitis is the  inflammation of the epithelial lining, which continue to irritate the bronchi, which stimulate immune response and therefore mucus production. it is this mucus that blocked the  bronchi given difficulties with breathing (shortness of breath)giving wheezing sounds.

Good lifestyle,intake of medication are measures to cure and prevent this.

the abdomen (less formally called the belly, stomach, tummy or midriff) constitutes the part of the body between the thorax (chest) and pelvis, in humans and in other vertebrates. the region occupied by the abdomen is termed the abdominal cavity. the stomach secretes acid and enzymes that digest food. ridges of muscle tissue called rugae line the stomach. the stomach muscles contract periodically, churning food to enhance digestion. the pyloric sphincter is a muscular valve that opens to allow food to pass from the stomach to the small intestine.

transcription is a process in which information is rewritten. it is something our cells must do, in a more specialized and narrowly defined way. in biology, transcription is the process of copying out the dna sequence of a gene in the similar alphabet of rna. it needs to happen in the nucleus because that's where the dna is. dna is always inside the nucleus unless the cell is dividing.

transcription is the first step in gene expression, which involves copying a gene's dna sequence to make an rna molecule. transcription is performed by rna polymerases. it has three stages: initiation, elongation, and termination. rna molecules must be processed after transcription in eukaryotes.

explanation:

long version:

the protein synthesis consists two processes which are, transcription and translation. transcription takes place in the nucleus. it uses dna as a template to make an rna molecule. rna then leaves the nucleus and goes to a ribosome in the cytoplasm, where translation occurs. transcription is the first part of the central dogma of molecular biology: dna → rna. it is the transfer of genetic instructions in dna to messenger rna (mrna). during transcription, a strand of mrna is made that is complementary to a strand of dna.  

these three stages are:

  initiation: in which   is the beginning of transcription.occuring when the enzyme rna polymerase binds to a region of a gene called the promoter. this signals the dna to unwind so the enzyme can ‘‘read’’ the bases in one of the dna strands. the enzyme is now ready to make a strand of mrna with a complementary sequence of bases.

    elongation: in which is the addition of nucleotides to the mrna strand. rna polymerase reads the unwound dna strand and builds the mrna molecule, using complementary base pairs. there is a brief time during this process when the newly formed rna is bound to the unwound dna. during this process, an adenine (a) in the dna binds to an uracil (u) in the rna.

    termination: in which is the ending of transcription, and occurs when rna polymerase crosses a stop (termination) sequence in the gene. the mrna strand is complete, and it detaches from dna.