Describe how plant genes can be manipulated using the ti plasmid carried by agrobacterium as a vector.

Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a bacteria that cause crown gall disease in plants. This bacterium enters in plant cell through the wound and releases Ti plasmid in bacteria cytoplasm. The T DNA present in the plasmid integrates into the plant genome and cause crown gall disease in plant.

Therefore this quality of Ti plasmid is used in genetic engineering to manipulate plant gene. A desired gene can be introduced in the place of T DNA of Ti plasmid and then this agrobacterium is used to infect a plant.

This will allow the bacterial Ti plasmid to integrate the desired DNA fragment in the host plant cells. So by this method plant genes can be manipulated.

parasites can detrimentally affect their host, but also must not allow their host to die before they can complete their life cycle. some parasites have complex life cycles with many different hosts, and have had to find ways of persisting in many different environments during the change from one host to another. ectoparasites live outside the body of the host, and can more easily  disperse, but are  more exposed to predators, parasites, parasitoids. endoparasites live inside the body of the host, and are therefore protected from the outside environment. but they can be  attacked by the host's immune system. they have therefore developed  mechanisms for dispersal such as  complex life cycles.

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