Refer to the two passages. Source 1

"The national college, or Han-lin-yuen, is a body of learned doctors, who have arrived at the most extensive celebrity, and are the guardians of Chinese literature. They are eligible to the highest offices of state, and exercise great influence in the most important affairs of government. Their learning consists in the knowledge of the Chinese classics, works which a schoolboy cons, and a Hanlin explains. General knowledge is excluded from this department. If they can write a good essay, discourse upon the doctrines of Confucius, and unite with this a knowledge of their own country, and a few imperfect geographical notions, they are truly learned men. But wo unto him who should be daring enough to utter anything beyond what Confucius has taught. Their learning does not consist in examining, but in blindly following established principles.”

Observations of 18th-century Qing government in China by Charles Gutzlaff, from A Sketch of Chinese History, Ancient and Modern, 1834

Source 2

"Wherever we see the word of God sincerely preached and heard, wherever we see the sacraments administered according to the institution of Christ, there we cannot have any doubt that the Church of God has some existence, since his promise cannot fail, ‘Where two or three are gathered together in my name, there am I in the midst of them’ (Mt. 18:20).”

John Calvin, Protestant reformer, in the fourth book of his anthology The Institutes of the Christian Religion, ca. 1559

Compared to the concepts discussed in Source 2, Catholic and Confucian beliefs between 1450 and 1750 were similar in that they contributed to which of the following?

A clergy class largely separate from politics
Numerous schisms among leaders in the belief system
A decline in literacy among the general population
A belief structure tightly aligned to the state